Looking at, and through, the earliest telescopes What their optical and material features tell us about them and their users

Complementing the extensive document-based scholarship of the origins and evolution of the telescope, we have taken a close look at the early (pre-1775) examples that still survive. Even though we might immediately associate a telescope with astronomy, its earliest (and most frequent) application was for terrestrial observing. In paintings and in literature, it alludes to topics of broad interest: diplomacy, theological disputes, social customs, sensory limitations, colonialization, and more. Drawing on 25 years of hands-on examinations of the world's oldest surviving telescopes, we will draw viewers into a few fascinating stories in which we look at, and through, these amazing tools. We provide a first look at recent discoveries about the invention of achromatic lenses. Looking through these instruments tells us about the cosmos; looking at them tells us about ourselves. Doing both enlarges our universe.